Mudlarking: Written in History
By Jason Sandy
Hand-written letter and quill pen (Tcukimay/stock.adobe.com).
Over the past 600 years, England has produced some of the most famous authors and playwrights. As a high school student growing up in Virginia, I had to read and study many of their major works, such as Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (1387–1400), Shakespeare’s Romeo & Juliet (1597), Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice (1813) and Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations (1861). To this day, English authors are still creating influential works. J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter book series took the world by storm.
For centuries, writing and reading have been an important part of education and culture. Historic artifacts recovered by mudlarks in the River Thames and by archaeologists in the River Walbrook give us unique, intriguing insights into the reading and writing habits of Londoners.
Some of the oldest examples of writing were discovered when archaeologists excavated the new Bloomberg European headquarters site near the Thames in Central London between 2010 and 2013. Over 400 rare, wooden writing tablets were unearthed. Preserved for millennia in the waterlogged conditions of the River Walbrook (a tributary of the River Thames), these Roman tablets date to AD 50–80 and are the earliest written documents found in Britain. They were made of wood and wax, although only the wood has survived. Melted beeswax was poured into the thin, recessed surface carved into the wooden tablet. After the wax hardened, the pointed tip of a metal “stylus” was used to scratch words into the wax. Astonishingly, ancient handwriting is still visible on the surface of some tablets (below), and 90 of them have been translated from Latin into English and reveal general correspondence, financial, and legal documentation. They give us an unprecedented glimpse into life in Roman Londinium. On one tablet, the letters of the alphabet have been written out which could indicate that it was possibly used for educational purposes in a school setting.
Roman wooden writing tablet in the London Museum (Jason Sandy). Roman styli and writing tablet in the London Museum (Jason Sandy).
During the archaeological excavations, over 200 Roman styli were also discovered (above). A stylus had a writing tip at one end and a flat surface at the other end to smoothen the wax (like an eraser).
Roman stylus with ancient engraving (London Museum).
Dating to AD 70, one of the styli has an unusual engraving (above). Gifted to a friend as a souvenir from Rome, the inscription reads: “I have come from the city. I bring you a welcome gift with a sharp point that you may remember me...”
Medieval bone writing stylus (Portable Antiquities Scheme).
Although thousands of Roman artifacts have been found in the River Thames by mudlarks, no Roman stylus or writing tablet have been found. However, a mudlark discovered a medieval stylus in 2004 which demonstrates that Roman writing habits endured into the Middle Ages. The stylus was carved from animal bone between 1100–1500 (above). At one end, the stylus has a flat, square head which is rounded and curved at one side, demonstrating evidence of usage. In cross section, the shaft of the stylus is roughly circular and tapers to a pointed tip which would have been used to write in the surface of a wax tablet, similar to Roman examples.
Medieval parchment prickers (Portable Antiquities Scheme).
As I was mudlarking with Stuart Wyatt (Finds Liaison Officer at the London Museum), he spotted a carved bone object nestled among the rocks. Upon closer inspection, he identified it as a medieval parchment pricker with a delicate finial in the shape of an acorn (above top). Surprisingly, the iron tip is still intact at the end of the implement. In 2007, mudlarks Tony Pilson and Ian Smith found another complete parchment pricker with a globular terminal (above bottom).
Dating to 1200–1600, there are a few theories about the use of these tools. It is commonly believed that this tool was used for making holes in parchment as guides for writing in a straight line before lined paper was invented. Other historians think this tool could have been used as a stylus for writing on a wax tablet.
Post-medieval book clasps (Portable Antiquities Scheme).
Over the years, several mudlarks and I have discovered ornate book clasps dating to 1500–1700 which are beautifully decorated (above). In the medieval and post-medieval periods, books were very rare and important, so people took great care to preserve them. Brass clasps were used to lock the front and back book covers together so the pages didn’t expand in humid conditions and to protect the book from harmful dust and UV light which could damage the fragile pages. Not only did book clasps serve a utilitarian function, they were also highly decorated to enhance their appearance and adorn the book.
In 1403, a Guild of Stationers (booksellers who copied and sold manuscripts and writing materials) was formed. They set up stalls or “stations” around St. Paul’s Cathedral and were therefore given the nickname “Stationers.” Before the 17th century, there were only a few small businesses publishing and selling books and pamphlets in London. Following the English Civil War, the book trade developed rapidly in the 1650s and 1660s. London steadily grew to become the printing capital of Europe.
17th-century stationer’s token with book symbol (Portable Antiquities Scheme). 17th-century token from stationer John Young (Portable Antiquities Scheme).
Over the years, mudlarks have found 17th-century trade tokens issued by the stationers. Nick Bultitude discovered a brass token (above left) from a stationer named William Weeks from Plymouth. Stamped with the date 1659, the token has an image of an ornate book with a cover adorned with a variety of symbols and held together with two book clasps. The token was probably dropped in the river when William delivered books to London. William Weeks went on to become the mayor of Plymouth in 1674–1675.
Another token (above right) found in the Thames is from a stationer named John Young whose business was located in Fenchurch Street, not far from the Tower of London. On the token dating to 1656–1674, a stag’s head is depicted which was the symbol of his bookshop.
18th-century quill knife handle (Jason Sandy). Right column, top to bottom: Quill pen and quill sharpening knife (Monika Buttling-Smith).
For hundreds of years, people used quills as a writing tool. They were made by taking a large feather from a goose or other large bird and cutting a nib into the tip. It was dipped into an inkwell, and the hollow shaft of the feather retained the ink. Although the organic material of quills has not survived, mudlarks have found the special knives used to cut and sharpen the quills. A few years ago, I discovered an encrusted knife handle (above left) from the 18th century. While I was cleaning it, beautiful decoration appeared from under the hardened encrustation. It’s the most extraordinary knife handle I’ve ever found. The Georgian knife handle is decorated with interwoven natural motifs including vines and leaves.
Mudlark Monika Buttling-Smith also found a similar quill knife (above right) and was able to carefully restore it. Incredibly, the iron blade hasn’t rusted away and still folds out. You can just imagine a Georgian gentleman pulling this ornate knife out of his waistcoat pocket to sharpen his pen quill.
Victorian stoneware ink bottle (Jason Sandy). 19th-century cottage ink bottle (Simon Bourne). 19th-century captain’s ink bottle (Monika Buttling-Smith).
As I was wading through the shallow water along the Thames one day, I spotted a round object on the riverbed. As I picked it up, I was surprised to see a complete, unbroken Victorian stoneware inkwell (above left). They were sometimes called a “penny” inkwell (based on the cost) or a “pork pie” inkwell (because of the squat, rounded shape). As an author myself, I was excited to find this historic inkwell. I wonder who owned it and what they wrote by candlelight with their quill pen and ink from this inkwell?
One of the most beautiful glass inkwells (above center) was found by mudlark Simon Bourne in the Thames. It’s called a “Cottage Ink” bottle because it has been formed in the shape of a traditional English cottage. If you look closely, you can see the bubbles trapped in the glass. It has a burst lip top where the quill would have been placed into the inkwell.
A few years ago, Monika Buttling-Smith discovered an unusual glass ink well (above right) with its pewter lid still attached. The milky-colored glass was free blown, and a pontil scar is visible on the base. Monika thinks it could have been owned by a ship’s captain who possibly used the ink well to record the ship’s log. Maybe he also kept a journal of his adventures and experiences on the high seas.
19th–20th-century fountain pen nibs (Kristina Kapciukaite). 19th-century writing aid (Portable Antiquities Scheme). Illustration of Victorian writing aid (Jason Sandy).
Until the early 19th century, quill pens were the primary utensil used for writing. In the 1820s, English businessmen set up a factory in Birmingham to manufacture steel pen nibs that retain a sharp point much longer than the quill which requires frequent sharpening. While mudlarking along the exposed riverbed, Kristina Kapciukaite has found over 15 nibs (above left) from fountain pens dating to the 19th–20th centuries. Each one has a different maker’s name etched into the surface. One of the most interesting pen nibs was produced by Richard Esterbrook & Co., who established the “Esterbrook Pen Company” in Camden, New Jersey in 1858. It would become one of the largest and most popular pen makers in the world. In the 1870s, Esterbrook began producing his pen nibs in England because the quality of steel was better than in the USA.
At its peak, Esterbrook manufactured 216 million pens a year. They were so popular that even U.S. presidents used the pens. For instance, Abraham Lincoln and Lyndon B. Johnson signed legislation with their Esterbrook pens. John F. Kennedy signed documents with an Esterbrook pen, which released funds to NASA, enabling the U.S. to land a man on the moon.
One of the most unusual artifacts recovered from the Thames (above right) looks like three fingertips pressed together. It took a while to figure out what this mysterious object is, but the London Museum identified it as an aid to help a Victorian child learn to hold a pen or pencil correctly. Dating to 1887–1900, the writing aid has been molded in brass to form a thumb and two fingers with a central hole for a pen to be placed in. There are three sockets so children could put their fingers into the casting and practice holding the pen correctly while writing.
Victorian pencil sharpener (Kasia Green). Metal type on Thames foreshore (Jason Sandy). Printing tray with type from the Thames (Philly Gumbo).
Several mudlarks have found long, thin sticks of graphite from Victorian pencils in the Thames, and last year Kasia Green discovered something very special: a stunning Victorian pencil sharpener (above left). Dating to 1850–1900, it is made of pewter with a wonderfully ornate, scallop-shaped head decorated with a pattern of crisscrossed lines. Two, curvilinear scrolls rise from each side of the cone-shaped base where the pencil tip was inserted and twisted against the sharp edge along the linear slot to sharpen the pencil. From the circular hole in the center, the sharpener was possibly suspended from a necklace, ready to be used whenever necessary. With its embellished appearance, this utilitarian object would have looked like a piece of jewelry when worn as a pendant around the neck.
Following the abolition of the newspaper tax in 1855, the British newspaper industry experienced unprecedented growth. Fleet Street in Central London was the mecca of the British press. The Press Association (PA Media), Reuters, London News Agency, Universal News Agencies, New York Herald, The Times, Observer, Daily Mail, Daily Mirror, and many other newspapers, news agencies, and printers were located in and around Fleet Street. Since William Caxton introduced the printing press to England in 1476, movable pieces of metal type have been used to mass produce books, newspapers, and many other printed materials. For decades, the newspapers and publications in Fleet Street were printed with metal type.
This famous street runs parallel to the Thames, and many workers in the publishing houses had to cross the river to get to and from work. On both sides of the river near Fleet Street, I have found many pieces of type (above center), which could have been tossed into the river as the workers went home. After the printing process was complete, it was a painstaking job to sort and put the small, metal letters back into their correct boxes aptly named “lower cases” and “upper cases.” Pocketfuls of type were probably dumped in the river by lazy workers on their way home.
Over many years, Philly Gumbo and Judy Hazell have collected hundreds of pieces of type from the riverbed. They have carefully sorted their Thames type and placed them in a printing tray (above right).
Stamped impressions of type from the Thames (Liz Anderson).
Liz Anderson has also found many pieces of type along the river. They are still fit for purpose, and she has stamped them onto paper (right).
Type blocks with founders’ names (Philly Gumbo). Printing plates found in the Thames (Alessio Checconi).
Philly and Judy have even discovered blocks of type (above left) with the founders’ names on them. One has the name “SB & Co” from the creators, John Stephenson and James Blake, who started their partnership in 1830. Their type was considered to be the most precise in Britain. In 1865, they opened a warehouse in London to supply the demands of Fleet Street newspapers.
The disposal of the Doves Type into the Thames off Hammersmith Bridge is the most notorious story about custom-made type and its disgruntled partners who created it. To read more about this story, refer to my “Lost for Words” article from the January/February 2021 issue of Beachcombing.
Several printing plates (above right) have also been recovered from the Thames by Alessio Checconi and Sarah Tibbatts. One plate was used to print a dictionary. Several of them contain names of historic figures from the 18th century (e.g., Charles Burney, John Hawkins, etc.) and publishing houses such as Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Co. based in London in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Another broken printing plate is from a “Penny Dreadful,” a genre of popular literature published weekly in the 19th century. It cost a “penny” to buy a copy of these “dreadful” stories involving criminals such as Sweeney Todd (a barber from Fleet Street) and other notorious characters. The printing plates were often melted down and reused, so it is rare to find one.
News Building” along the Thames (Jason Sandy).
Publishing is still a big business in London. Founded in 1949, the Thames & Hudson publishing house has its global headquarters in London. Completed in 2014, the “News Building” (right) is located along the Thames in Southwark. Several newspapers are based in this building including The Times, The Sunday Times, The Sun, and The Wall Street Journal, along with Harper Collins, one of the top five publishers in the world. My wife, a member of the historic Stationers’ Company, worked there for ten years publishing books. In this digital age, reading and writing are even more important, and more books are published annually than ever before.
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This article appeared in Beachcombing Magazine Volume 46 the January/February 2025 issue.
