Mudlarking: Working River

By Jason Sandy

19th-century painting of the Port of London (John Gendall). Ships docked by the Tower of London painting (Samuel Scott).

Since the Romans established Londinium in AD 43, the River Thames has served as a vital port for vessels importing and exporting goods. Without the port, London would not have become one of the most important cities in the world. The Romans imported wine, olives, olive oil, salted fish, garum (fish sauce), pottery, glassware, and other goods from around their empire, and they exported raw materials from Britain such as wheat, cloth, timber, silver, lead, tin, and iron.

Over the centuries, the maritime trade and importance of the port steadily increased. In AD 731, the medieval monk and writer Venerable Bede described the Anglo-Saxon settlement as “an emporium (market) of many peoples coming by land and sea.” Lundenwic was one of the largest Anglo-Saxon trading centers in Europe, and merchant ships from foreign lands imported exotic goods such as silks, precious stones, gold, wine, olive oil, ivory, bronze, glass, and other luxuries to the city.

In the Middle Ages and Tudor period, maritime trade continued to flourish, and London merchants became very wealthy. Between the beginning and end of the 17th century, the amount of shipping passing through the Port of London increased fivefold. Because of its monopoly on trading with the Far East, London (top left) became the busiest port in the world in the 18th century. The port was handling 80% of Britain’s imports and 69% of the country’s exports. During the course of the 19th century, London became the world’s largest and wealthiest city, serving as the capital, global hub, and financial center of the vast British Empire.

Connected to this global trade network, the River Thames provided an ideal location for businesses and trades of all types. Fish markets, slaughterhouses, ship builders, ship breakers, pottery factories, whaling industries, tanneries, skinners, weavers, dyers, breweries, and other industries were densely packed together along the river. Based on the evidence found on the foreshore, you can tell where the trades were once located. Over the years, mudlarks have recovered many different types of tools from the river. Some of the most common finds are iron tools from the heyday of the port in the 18th–early 20th centuries. They are a testament to the “working river” and the tradesmen who plied their trade along the Thames. Some of the tools have been personalized and stamped with the owner’s name or initials.

Engraved illustration of the Port of London in 1845 (S.C. Smyth).

At the beginning of the 18th century, around 7,000 ships were entering the port each year, importing goods and fresh produce from around the globe. Between 1794 and 1824, the number of ships entering London increased from around 14,000 annually to nearly 24,000. In 1700, about 435,000 tons of shipping were recorded in London. By 1830, approximately 3,500,000 tons of cargo were handled each year. To handle this huge volume of cargo, an army of workmen was required.

19th-century illustration of Thames Lightermen, London Labour and the London Poor, 1861 (Henry Mayhew).

When large ships arrived in London from overseas, they entered the enclosed docks or cast anchor in the center of the river. Flat-bottomed boats called “Lighters” were used by lightermen (above) to transfer cargo from the large ships to the wharves and warehouses along the river. When the tide receded, the flat-bottomed boats rested on the exposed foreshore without tipping over, as cranes and men transferred the cargo into the warehouses. The river was often overcrowded and congested with ships and boats of all sizes. Lightermen were highly skilled at navigating the river, and they used boat hooks which were attached to wooden poles to maneuver (push and pull) between boats. Over the years, I have found numerous iron boat hooks from the 19th century (below left) in the Thames.

Various iron sack hooks found by Monika Buttling-Smith (Jason Sandy). Jason’s collection of 19th-century boat hooks (Jason Sandy).

Quayside workers such as stevedores and lumpers moved the cargo from the boats into the warehouses. They used essential tools made of iron (above right) to manually carry the goods. Double bag hooks were the most common tool used for handling smaller sacks such as coffee beans. Drum hooks were used by dockers to transport drums and barrels. At the tip of the hook, a small plate was used to grip the rim of the container, making it easier to carry. Double sack hooks were formed with two hooks to handle large bales of commodities such as wool.

18th–19th-century padlocks (Alan Murphy). Spherical padlock from 1450–1700 (Alan Murphy). 19th-century padlocks from George Carr’s business (Alan Murphy).

At the heart of the global shipping industry, London was known as the “warehouse of the world.” The vast network of warehouses and storage facilities along the riverfront contained valuable commodities from around the globe, and security was paramount to deter river pirates, thieves, smugglers, and even desperate mudlarks. Tall gates would have been secured with sturdy padlocks. They were also used to lock barges which were floating on the river. Padlocks were made by fastening plates of thick iron together with brass rivets. Over the years, Alan Murphy has recovered many types of iron padlocks (above left) from the 18th–19th centuries.

Some of them have very unique shapes such as a spherical padlock (above center) dating to AD 1450–1700. It has a circular locking arm which is D-shaped in cross-section. In the center of the sphere, there is a keyhole still present.

Many of the padlocks that Alan has found have a name and address stamped into the iron surface. “G. CARR, 108 & 110 ROTHERHITHE STREET” appears on two of the 19th-century padlocks (above right). George Carr was a barge builder, anchorsmith, and engineer whose business was located on Rotherhithe Street. Although George’s business disappeared a long time ago, this padlock is a reminder of his important trade.

15th–16th-century keys (Graham duHeaume).

For every lock, a key is required. Graham duHeaume has found hundreds of medieval and post-medieval keys (above) in the Thames. The creative designs and unique shapes of these keys are absolutely beautiful. Just imagine what doors and locks these keys opened in London centuries ago!

Since Roman times, the Port of London has been a place where ships and boats were built and repaired. Some of the largest and most successful docks for shipbuilding were located along the river in Deptford, Woolwich, Blackwall, and Millwall in East London. The famous naval dockyard in Deptford was established by Henry VIII in 1513. In operation for over 300 years, the docks produced impressive warships that fought under Horatio Nelson in the Battle of Trafalgar. The Deptford docks were also associated with the great Tudor explorers Sir Frances Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh. The largest ship ever launched from the Thames foreshore was the steamship SS Great Eastern, which was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel and built by J. Scott Russell & Co. in Millwall. After some difficulty, the ship was successfully launched in 1858, and could carry 4,000 passengers from Britain to Australia without refueling.

17th-century carpenter’s axe head (PAS). Logo of West Ham United football club (West Ham United. 17th-century iron hammer (Brian Pitkin).

Until the 19th century, most ships were made of timber. Axes, saws, chisels, and files were used to cut, shape, and finish the timber. Over the years, mudlarks have found a wide variety of these ship building tools on the foreshore.

Tony Pilson discovered a complete 17th-century carpenter’s axe head (above left) made of cast iron. It has an integral socket where the wooden handle had been fixed. The triangular blade is decorated with a band of incised cross-hatching within two curved lines. Two maker’s marks in the shape of conjoined letters “OC” have been stamped on the blade.

Iron hammers were an important tool for shipbuilding. Brian Pitkin found a beautiful hammer (above right) from the 17th century. The head is made of cast iron. A large, iron tang is securely wedged into the socket of the hammer head. The tang flattens and tapers to a point, and a wooden handle would have been fastened to the iron tang with the two rivets which are still visible.

Located near the East India Docks, the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company constructed iron-hulled steamships. Dock workers from the company started a football team in 1895 called the Thames Ironworks Football Club, which later became West Ham United in 1900. The Premier League football team still has two diagonally crossed hammers in their logo (left), which are a reminder of the dockworkers who used hammers to build the large ships along the Thames. The football club is still referred to as “The Hammers.”

Iron caulking tool (PAS). Carved bone marlin spikes or fids (PAS).

To ensure that the joints between the timber planks on a ship’s hull were watertight, shipbuilders would use a caulking tool (above left) to wedge caulk into the gaps. The iron tool has a flat head and cylindrical handle which flattens and widens to a narrow edge that is slightly rounded to push the caulk into narrow gaps.

Rope was an important part of a ship’s rigging. It had a variety of functions, but its primary role was to secure the ship’s sails. A simple bone tool called a “marlin spike” or “fid” was used to splice and mend the ropes and keep them in good working order. Formed from a sheep’s metapodial bone, the proximal end of the bone was sliced in half to create a simple scoop (above right). Dating to the 15th–18th centuries, these simple, lightweight tools were portable, and some were drilled with a suspension hole so they could be carried around the neck on a leather cord, ready for use whenever needed. Others were embellished and carved with criss-cross designs, rings and dots, and patterns of incised lines, which indicate that they were beloved, personalized tools. It is thought that these tools may have also been used as apple corers, cheese scoops, or bone marrow scoops.

Detail of The Fighting Temeraire, tugged to her last berth to be broken up, 1838 (J.M.W. Turner).

Ship breaking was a lucrative business along the Thames. The famous English artist J. M. W. Turner immortalized London’s ship breaking industry in his painting, The Fighting Temeraire (above). The 98-gun ship played a distinguished role in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The painting depicts the HMS Temeraire being towed by a paddle-wheel steam tug toward the yards of shipbreaker John Beatson in Rotherhithe in September 1838 to be broken up for scrap.

Rusting ironwork visible on the exposed riverbed (Jason Sandy).

To this day, the Thames foreshore is littered with traces of the ship breaking industry. Especially in Rotherhithe, there is a vast amount of rusting metalwork (above) lying on the foreshore. Heavy timbers, ship building and breaking tools, copper and brass nails, large ropes, and chains demarcate where some of the largest ship building and breaking companies were situated along the river. Because of the weight of the metal tools and ironwork, they have not moved from the location where they were dropped hundreds of years ago.

Over the centuries, there have been numerous markets located along the Thames. One of the oldest and most famous is Billingsgate Fish Market in Central London, which dates back to the 16th century. During the 19th century, the fish market was the largest in the world. It was famous for its foul-mouthed fishmongers and so-called “oyster-wives” who shouted the offers of the day in their own special dialect.

Billingsgate Fish Market token from F. Jary (Jason Sandy).

While mudlarking along the foreshore below Old Billingsgate fish market, I have found many remnants of the original market, such as scallop shells, oyster shells, bag seals, fishing weights, and fishing hooks. In 2019, I found a 19th-century market token (above). The fish salesman’s name “F. Jary” and “Billingsgate” are stamped on the front. The value of the token “One Shilling” is stamped on the back. Although it has been relocated, Billingsgate Fish Market still exists.

Jason’s collection of 16th–17th-century jetons (Jason Sandy).

The banks of the River Thames were also used as open marketplaces to sell fresh fruit, vegetables, and other commodities. I have discovered several brass jetons (above) on the foreshore where the marketplaces once stood. Jetons were coin-like counters produced across Europe from the 13th–17th centuries. They were used as reckoning counters for financial calculations on a lined board similar to an abacus.

Jeton production increased after the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, and the famous Nuremberg jeton makers often stamped religious proverbs and messages in German on their counters. One of my favorite inscriptions is “Gottes Segen macht reich” which means “God’s blessing makes you rich.” As merchants were conducting their accounting with jetons, I’m sure they were hoping for God’s blessing to increase their wealth and prosperity.

Watermen at Old Wapping Stairs (Thomas Rowlandson). Jason’s collection of 17th-century rose farthings (Jason Sandy).

One of the most famous groups of workers along the river were the Thames watermen. For centuries, the watermen transported people across the river in their wherries. For over 600 years, there was only one bridge across the river in London. If you didn’t live near Old London Bridge, you had to hop into a wherry if you wanted to cross the river.

Wapping Old Stairs was a popular crossing point in East London. In a painting entitled Miseries of London (above left) produced by Thomas Rowlandson in 1804, he illustrated a woman being assailed by a group of watermen, begging her to step into their boats to cross to the south side of the river. At Wapping Old Stairs and other river crossings, I have found many rose farthings (above right) which are very small, copper coins produced in the 17th century. It is believed that these small coins could have been used to pay the waterman’s fare to cross the river.

17th-century token from the Waterman’s Arms tavern (PAS).

In 2020, Guy Phillips recovered a 17th-century trade token (above) from a riverside tavern called the “Waterman’s Arms” at Wapping Dock. Within a shield, a wherry and crossed oars are illustrated on the token. The tavern was owned by Edward Willdee and named after the watermen who lived locally. You can imagine the raucous tavern, overcrowded with sweaty watermen after a hard day’s work on the river.

Museum of London Docklands (Jason Sandy).

For centuries, London was the largest and most important port city in the world. Thousands of people lived and worked along the docks, and the tools and artifacts that they dropped in the river are a salient reminder of their hard work and contribution to the success of the port. To find out more about the history of the Port of London, I would highly recommend a visit to the Museum of London Docklands. Located in an original brick warehouse built in 1802 to store rum, sugar, molasses, coffee, and cotton imported from the West Indies, the museum tells the story of the Docklands and its people throughout the ages. Within the original timber structure of the warehouse, they have recreated a “Sailortown” (above) to provide an immersive, time-traveling experience back to the heyday of the port city in the 19th century.

Join Jason for a half-hour video beachcombing trip to some of his favorite spots on the River Thames, where he finds treasures buried for centuries in the London mud. He also shares some of his favorite pieces in his extensive collection of finds from prehistory through modern times.

Learn more about mudlarking

Learn more about the experiences of mudlarks, who search the shores of rivers, bays, and seas for historical finds and other objects. Articles ›

Mudlarking on the Thames Foreshore requires a permit. Learn about rules for mudlarking in London ›

This article appeared inBeachcombing Magazine Volume 39 November/December 2023.